ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION

ENVIRONMENTAL  POLLUTION

Pollution . is . defined . as . 'an . addition . or . excessive . addition . of . certain . materials . to . the . physical . environment . (water, . air . and . lands), . making . it . less . fit . or . unfit . for . life'.

 . POLLUTANTS

 . Pollutants . are . the . materials . or . factors, . which . cause . adverse . effect . on . the . natural . quality . of . any . component . of . the . environment.

 . For . example

Smoke . from . industries . and . automobiles, . chemicals . from . factories, . radioactive . substances . from . nuclear . plants, . sewage . of . houses . and . discarded . household . articles . are . the . common . pollutants.

 . Classifications . of . Pollutent

(i) . According . to . the . form . in . which . they . persist . after . release . into . the . environment.

Primary . pollutants: . These . persist . in . the . form . in . which . they . are . added . to . the . environment . e.g. . DDT, . plastic.

Secondary . Pollutants: . These . are . formed . by . interaction . among . the . primary . pollutants.For . example, . peroxyacetyl . nitrate . (PAN) . is . formed . by . the . interaction . of . nitrogen . oxides . and . hydrocarbons.

 . (ii) . According . to . their . existence . in . nature.

Quantitative . Pollutants: . These . occur . in . nature . and . become . pollutant . when . their . concentration . reaches . beyond . a . threshold . level. . E.g. . carbon . dioxide, . nitrogen . oxide.

Qualitative . Pollutants: . These . do . not . occur . in . nature . and . are . man-made. . E.g. . fungicides, . herbicides, . DDT . etc. . ·

(iii) . According . to . their . nature . of . disposal.

Biodegradable . Pollutants: . Waste . products, . which . are . degraded . by . microbial . action. . E.g. . sewage.

Non-biodegradable . Pollutants: . Pollutants, . which . are . not . decomposed . by . microbial . action. . E.g. . plastics, . glass, . DDT, . salts . of . heavy . metals, . radioactive . substances . etc.

(iv) . According . to . origin

 . Natural

Anthropogenic

Causes . of . pollution

a)     Uncontrolled . growth . in . human . population

b)    Rapid . industrialization

c)     Urbanization

d)    Uncontrolled . exploitation . of . nature.

e)     Forest . fires, . radioactivity, . volcanic . eruptions, . strong . winds . etc.,

AIR   POLLUTION

 . Air . pollution . is . aggravated . because . of . four . developments: . increasing . traffic, . growing . cities, . rapid . economic . development, . and . industrialization.

 . 'The . presence . in . the . atmosphere . of . one . or . more . contaminants . in . such . quality . and . for . such . duration . as . it . is . injurious, . or . tends . to . be . injurious, . to . human . health . or . welfare, . animal . or . plant . life.' . ·

 . It . is . the . contamination . of . air . by . the . discharge . of . harmful . substances.

Air . pollution . can . cause . health . problems, . damage . the . environment, . property . and . climate . change.

Major . air . pollutants . and . their . sources .

Carbon . monoxide . (CO)

It . is . a . colourless, . odourless . gas . that . is . produced . by . the . incomplete . burning . of . carbon-based . fuels . including . petrol, . diesel, . and . wood.

It . is . also . produced . from . the . combustion . of . natural . and . synthetic . products . such . as . cigarettes.

It . lowers . the . amount . of . oxygen . that . enters . our . blood.

 . It . can . slow . our . reflexes . and . make . us . confused . and . sleepy.

Carbon . dioxide . (C02)

 .*  It . is . the . principle . greenhouse . gas . emitted . as . a . result . of . human . activities . such . as . the . burning . of . coal, . oil, . and . natural . gases. . Chloroflorocarbons . (CFC)

.    These . are . gases . that . are . released . mainly . from . air-conditioning . systems . and . refrigeration.

*  When . released . into . the . air, . CFCs . rise . to . the . stratosphere, . where . they . come . in . contact . w;ith . few . other . gases, . which . lead . to . a . reduction . of . the . ozone . layer . that . protects . the . earth . from . the . harmful . ultraviolet . rays . of . the . sun.

Lead

> . It . is . present . in . petrol, . diesel, . lead . batteries, . paints, . hair . dye . products, . etc. . Lead . affects . chlldren . in . particular.

> . It . can . cause . nervous . system . damage . and . digesti".e . problems . and, . in . some. . cases, . cause . cancer.

Ozone

> . It . occurs . naturally . in . the . upper . layers . of . the . atmosphere.

> . This . important . gas . shlelds . the . earth . from . the . hanrtful . ultraviolet . rays . of . the . sun.

> . However, . at-the . ground . level, . it . is . a . pollutant . with . highly . toxic . effects.

> . Vehlcles . and . industries . are . the . major . source . of . ground-level . ozone . emissions.

> . Ozone . makes . our . eyes . itch, . bum, . and . water. . It . lowers . our . resistance . to . cold . and . pneumonia.

 . Nitrogen . oxide . (Nox)

> . It . causes . smog . and . acid . rain. . It . is . produced . from . burning . fuels . including . petrol, . diesel, . and . coal.

> . Nitrogen . oxide . can . make . chlldren . sus~eptible . to . respiratory . diseases . inwinters. .

Suspended . particulate . matter . (SPM)

> . It . consists . of . solids . in . the . air . in . the . form . of . smoke, . dust, . and . vapour . that . can . remain . suspended . for . extended . periods . and . is . also . the . main . source . of . haze . whlch . reduces . visibility.

> . The . finer . of . these . particles, . when . breathed . in . can . lodge . in . our . lungs . and . cause . lung . damage . and . respiratory . problems.

Sulphur . dioxide . (S02)

> . It . is . a . gas . produced . from . burning . coal, . mainly . in . thermal . power . plants.

> . Some . industrial . processes, . such . as . production . ofm . paper . and . smelting . of . metals, . produce . sulphur . dioxide.

> . It . is . a . major . contributor . to . smog . and . acid . rain. . Sulfur . dioxide . can . lead . to . lung . diseases.

Smog

>- . The . term . smog . was . first . used . (1905) . by . Dr . HA . Des . Voeux

> . Smog . has . been . coined . from . a . combination . of . the . words . fog . and . smoke. . Smog . is . a . condition . of . fog . that . had . soot . or . smoke . in . it.

The . Formation . of . Smog

> . Photochemical . smog . (smog) . is . a . term . used . to . describe . air . pollution . that . is . a . result . of . the . interaction . of . sunlight . with . certain . chemicals . in . the . atmosphere.

> . One . of . the . primary . components . of . photochemical . smog . is . ozone.

> . While . ozone . in . the . stratosphere . protects . earth . from . harmful . UV . radiation, . ozone . on . the . ground . is . hazardous . to . human . health.

> . Ground-level . ozone . is . formed . when . vehicle . emissions . containing . nitrogen . oxides . (primarily . from . vehicle . exhaust) . and . volatile . organic . · . compounds . (from . paints, . solvents, . printing . inks, . petroleum . products, . vehlcles, . etc.) . interact . in . the . presence . of . sunlight.

 . Smog . refers . to . hazy . air . that . causes . difficult . breathing . conditions. . It . is . a . combination . of . various . gases . with . water . vapour . and . dust.

> . Its . occurrences . are . often . linked . to . heavy . traffic, . high . temperatures, . and . calm . winds. . During . the . winter, . wind . speeds . are . low· . and . cause . the . smoke . and . fog . to . stagnate . near . the . ground; . hence . pollution . levels . can . increase . near . ground . level.

> . Smoke . particles . trapped . in . the . fog . gives . it . a . yellow/black . colour . and . this . smog . often . settled . over . cities . for . many . days.

The . effects . of . smog

> . It . hampers . visibility . and . harms . the . environment.

~ . respiratory . problems

~ . deaths . relating . to . bronchial . diseases.

~ . Heavy . smog . greatly . decreases . ultraviolet . radiation.

~ . Heavy . smog . results . in . the . decrease . of . natural . vitamin . D . production . leading . to . a . rise . in . the . cases . of . rickets. . ·

Indoor . air . pollution

~ . It . refers . to . the . physical, . chemical, . and . biological . characteristics . of . air . in . the . indoor . environment . within . a . home, . or . an . institution . or . commercial . facility.

~ . Indoor . air . pollution . is . a . concern . where . energy . efficiency . improvements . sometimes . make . houses . relatively . airtight, . reducing . ventilation . and . raising . pollutant . levels.

~ . Indoor . air . problems . can . be . subtle . and . do . not . always . produce . easily . recognized . impacts . on . health.

~ . Different . conditions . are . responsible . for . indoor . air . pollution . in . the . rural . areas . and . the . urban . areas.

(a) . Rural

~ . It . is . the . rural . areas . that . face . the . greatest . threat . from . indoor . pollution, . where . people . rely . on . traditional . fuels . such . as . firewood, . charcoal, . and . cowdung . for . cooking . and . heating.

~ . Burning . such . fuels . produces . large . amount . of . smoke . and . other . ai.r . pollutants . in . the . confined . space . of . the . home, . resulting . in . high . exposure. . Women . and . children . are . the . groups . most . vulnerable . as . they . spend . more . time . indoors . and . are . exposed . to . the . smoke.

~ . Although . many . hundreds . of . separate . chemical . agents . have . been . identified . in . the . smoke . from . biofuels, . the . four . most . serious . pollutants . are . particulates, . carbon . monoxide, . polycyclic . organic . matter, . and . formaldehyde.

(b) . Urban

~ . In . urban . areas, . exposure . to . indoor . air . pollution . has . increased . due . to . a . variety . of . reasons, . such . as

~ . construction . of . more . tightly . sealed . buildings,

~ . reduced . ventilation,

~ . the . use . of . synthetic . materials . for . building . and . furnishing . and

~ . the . use . of . chemical . products, . pesticides, . and . household . care . products. . ,,

~ . Indoor . air . pollution . can . begin . within . the . building . or . drawn . in . from . outdoors.

~ . Other . than . nitrogen . dioxide, . carbon . monoxide, . and . lead, . there . are . a . number . of . other . pollutants . that . affect . the . air . quality.

Pollutants

i)                   Volatile . organic . compounds

The . main . indoor . sources . are . perfumes, . hair . sprays, . furniture . polish, . glues, . air . fresheners, . moth . repellents, . wood . preservatives, . and . other . products.

Health . effect . - . imitation . of . the . eye, . nose . and . throat, . headaches, . nausea . and . loss . of . coordination. .

long . term . - . suspected . to . damage . the . liver . and . other . parts . of . the . body.

ii)                Tobacco

Smoke . generates . a . wide . range . of . harmful . chemicals . and . is . carcinogenic.

Health . effect . : . burning . eyes, . nose, . and . throat . irritation . to . cancer, . bronchitis, . severe . asthma, . and . a . decrease . in . lung . function.

iii)              Biological . pollutants

It . includes . pollen . from . plants, . mite, . and . hair . from . pets, . fungi, . parasites, . and . some . bacteria.

Most . of . them . are . allergens . and . can . cause . asthma, . hay . fever, . and . other . allergic . diseases.

iv)               . Formaldehyde

> . Mainly . from . carpets, . particle . boards, . and . insulation . foam. . It . causes . irritation . to . the . eyes . an(! . nose . and . allergies.

v)                 Radon

> . It . is . a . gas . that . is . emitted . naturally . by . the . soil. . Due . to . modem . houses . having . poor . ventiIation, . it . is . confined . inside . the . house . and . causes . lung . cancers.

vi)              Asbestos

 . vii) . Pesticides

 . Fly . Ash

> . Ash . is . produced . whenever . combustion . of . solidm . material . takes . place.

> . Fly . ash . is . one . such . residue . which . rises . with . the . gases . into . the . atmosphere. . Fly . ash . is . a . very . fine . powder . and . tends . to . travel . far . in . the . air. . The . ash . which . does . not . rise . is . termed . as . bottom . ash.

> . Nearly . 73% . of . India's . total . installed . power . generation . capacity . is . thermal, . of . which . 90% . is . coal-based . generation, . with . diesel, . wind, . gas, . and . steam . making . up . the . rest.

Composition

1. . Aluminium . silicate . (in.large . amounts)

2. . silicon . dioxide . (Si02) . and

3. . Calcium . oxide . (CaO).

> . Fly . ash . particles . are . oxide . rich . and . consist . of . silica, . alumina, . oxides . of . iron, . calcium, . and . magnesium . and . toxic . heavy . metals . like . lead, . arsenic, . cobalt, . and . copper . .

How . it . is . collected?

> . Fly . ash . is . generally . captured . by . electrostatic . precipitators . or . other . particle . filtration . equipments . before . the . flue . gases . reach . the . chimneys . of . coal-fired . power . plants.

Environmental . effects?

> . If . fly . ash . is . not . captured . and . disposed . off . properly, . it . can . pollute . air . and . water . considerably.

> . It . causes . respiratory . problems.

> . Fly . ash . in . the . air . slowly . settles . on . leaves . and . crops . in . fields . in . areas . near . to . thermal . power . plants . and . lowers . the . plant . yield.

Advantages:

> . Cement . can . be . replaced . by . fly . ash . upto . 35%, . thus . reducing . the . cost . of . construction, . making . roads, . etc.

Fly . ash . bricks . are . light . in . weight . and . offer . high . strength . and . durability . ..

> . Fly . ash . is . a . better . fill . material . for . road . embankments . and . in . concrete . roads.

> . Fly . ash . can . be . used . in . reclamation . of . wastelands., . '.

> . Abandoned . mines . can . be . filled . up . with . fly . ash.

> . Fly . ash . can . increase . the . crop . yield . and . it . also . enhances . water . holding . capacity . of . the . land . .

Policy . measures . of . MoEF:

> . The . Ministry· . of . Environment . and . Forests . vide . its . notification . in . 2009, . has . made . it . mandatory . to . use . Fly . Ash . based . products . in . all . construction . projects, . road . embankment . works . and . low . lying . land . filling . works . within . 100 . kms . radius . of . Thermal . Power . Station.

> . To . use . Fly . Ash . inmine . filling . activities . within . 50 . kms . radius . of . Thermal . Power . Stations.

EFFECT . OF . AIR . POLLUTION .

1.     HEALTH . EFFECT

Name . of . Pollutant	Sources .	Health . Effects
Sulphur . Oxides	Thermal . power . plants . and . industries	Eye . and . throat . irritation, . cough, . allergies, . impairs . enzyme . function . in . respiratory . system. . Reduces . exchange . of . gases . from . lung . surface.
Nitrogen . Oxides	Thermal . power . plant, . industries . and . vehicles .	Irritation . and . inflammation. . Of . lungs, . breathlessness, . impairs . enzyme . function . in . respiratory . system . and . causes . bronchitis . and . asthma
Suspended . Particulate . Matter . (SOM) . .	Vehicular . emissions . and . burning . of . fossil . fuels .	Lung . irritation . reduces . development . of . RBC . and . cause . pulmonary . malfunctioning.
Carbon . Monoxide	Vehicular . emissions . and . burning . of . fossil . fuels	Difficulty . in . breathing, . severe . headaches, . irritation . to . mucous . membrane, . unconsciousness . and . death
Carbon . Dioxide	Burning . of . fossil . fuels	Impairs . reflexes, . judgment . and . vision, . severe . headaches . and . heart . strain.
Smog	Industries . and . vehicular . and . pollution	Respiratory . problems . intense . irritation . to . the . eyes.
Ozone	Automobile . emissions .	Breathlessness, . asthma, . wheezing, . chest . pain, . emphysema . and . chronic . bronchitis.
Chlorofluorocarbons	Refrigerators, . sprays, . emissions . from . jets .	Depletion . of . stratospheric . ozone . layer, . global . warming.
Hydrocarbons	Burning . of . fossil . fuels . . .	Carcinogenic . effect . on . lungs, . kidney . damage, . hypertension, . respiratory . distress, . irritation . of . eyes, . nose . and . throat, . asthma, . bronchitis . and . impairs . ellZyme . function . in . respiratory . system.
Tobacco . Smoke	Cigarettes, . cigars . etc	Chronic . bronchitis, . ast:hffia . and . lung . cancer, . irritation . of . eyes, . .nose . and . throat.
Mercury	Industries	Nervous . disorders, . insomnia,, . memory . loss, . excitability, . irritation, . tremor, . gingivitis . and . minamata . disease.
Lead	Leaded . petrol . emissions	Damage . to . brain . and . central . nervous . system, . kidneys . and . brains, . impaired . intelligence . and . interference . with . development . of . RBCs.
Cadmium Silica . dust .	Industries . Silicon . quarries .	Affects . the . heart Silicosis . affects . the . lungs
Cotton . dust	Cotton . textile . factories	Byssinosis . involves . destruction . of . lung . tissues, . chronic . cough, . bronchitis . and . emphysema.
Asbestos . dust	Asbestos . mining, . asbestos . sheet . manufacturing .	Asbestosis . which . involves . severe . respiratory . problems . and . may . lead . to . cancer.
Radioactive . pollutants	Cosmic . rays, . x-rays, . beta . rays, . radon . and . radium	Destroy . living . tissues . and . blood . cells; . affect . cell . membrane . and . cell . enzyme . functions, . leukemia, . and . permanent . genetic . changes.
Coal . dust . and . particles	Coal . mines	Black . lung . cancer, . pulmonary . fibrosis . which . lead . to . respiratory . failure.

IL . Effects . on . Vegetation

> . retard . photosynthesis.

> . Sulphur . dioxide . causes . chlorosis, . plasmolysis, . membrane . damage·and . metabolic . inhibition.

> . Hydrocarbons . such . as . ethylene . cause . premature . leaf . fall, . fruit . drop, . shedding . of . floral . buds, . curling . of . petals . and . discoloration . of . sepals.

> . Ozone . damage . chlorenchyma . and . thus . destructs . the . foliage . in . large . number . of . plants.

III. . Effects . on . Animals

IV.. . Detoriatioh . of . materials

V. . Aesthetic . Loss

Control . Measures

1. . Policy . measures

2. . Preventive . measures:

> . Selection . of . suitable . fuel . {e.g.fuel . with . low . sulphur . content) . and . its . efficient . utilization

> . Modifications . in . industrial . processe·s . and/or . equipments . foreduce . emission.

> . Selection . of . suit~ble . manufacturing . site . and . zoning. . e.g. . setting . of . industries . at . a . distance . of . residential . areas, . installation . of . tall . chimneys.

Control . measures:

{i) . destroying . the . pollutants . by . thermal . or . catalytic . combustion

(ii) . conversion . of . the . pollutants . to . a . less . toxic

{iii) . collection . of . the . pollutant

> . Different . types . of . air . pollutants . can . be . eliminated/minimised . by . following . methods:

a) . Control . of . particulate . matter: . Two. . types . of . devices . - . arresters . and . scrubbers . are . used . to . remove . particulate . pollutants . from . air: . These . are . arresters . and . scrubbers.

i. . Arresters: .

These . are . used . to . separate . particulate . matters . from . contaminated . air.

ii. . Scrubbers: .

These . are . used . to . clean . air . for . both . dusts . and . gases . by . passing . it . through . a . dry . or . wet . packing . material.

b) . Control . of . Gaseous . Pollutants:

The . gaseous . pollutants . can . be . controlled . through . the . techniques . of . Combustion, . absorption . and . adsorption.

c) . Control . of . Automobile . Exhaust

i. . use . of . efficient . engines . {e.g. . multipoint . fuel . injection . engine).

ii. . Catalytic . converter . filters . in . the . vehicles . can . convert . nitrogen . oxide . to . nitrogen . and . reduce . the . potential . hazards . of . NOx.

iii. . use . of . good . quality . automobile . fuels

iv. . use . of . lead . free . petrol.

v. . Use . of . compressed . natural . gas . (CNG).

Government . Initiatives

(1) . National . Air . Quality . Monitoring . Programme

> . In . India, . the . Central . Pollution . Control . Board . (CPCB) . has . been . executing . a . nationwide . programme . of . ambient . ai:r . quality . monitoring . known . as . National . Air . Quality . Monitoring . Programme . (NAMP).

> . The . NationalAirQuality . Monitoring . Programme . (NAMP) . is . undertaken . in . India

(i) . to . determine . status . and . trends . of . ambient . air . quality;

(ii) . to . ascertain . the . compliance . of . NAAQS;

(iii) . to . identify . non-attainment . cities;

(iv) . to . understand . the . natural . process . of . cleaning . in . the . atmosphere; . and

(v) . to . undertake . preventive . and . corrective . measures.

> . Annual . average . concentration . of . SOx . levels . are . within . the . prescribed . National . Ambient . Air . Quality . Standards . (NAAQS).

> . This . reduction . from . earlier . levels . is . due . to . various . measures . taken, . including . the . use . of . CNG . in . public . transport . in . Delhi, . the . reduction . of . sulphur . in . diesel . and . use . of . LPG . instead . of . coal . as . a . domestic . fuel.

> . A . mixed . trend . is . observed . in . N02 . levels . due . to . various . measures . taken . for . vehicular . pollution . control, . such . as . stricter . vehicular . emission . norms . being . partially . offset . by . increased . NOx . levels . due . to . the . use . of . CNG . in . urban . transport.

> . Total . suspended . particulates, . however, . are . still . ' . a . matter . of . concern . in . several . urban . and . semi . urban . areas.

(b) . National . Ambient . Air . Quality . Standards(NAAQS)

> . National . Ambient . Air . Quality . Standards . (NAAQS) . were . notified . in . the . year . 1982, . duly . revised . in . 1994 . based . on . health . criteria . and . land . uses.

> . The . NAAQS . have . been . revisited . and . revised . in . November . 2009 . for12 . pollutants, . which . include·

-1. . sulphur . dioxide . (S02),

2. . nitrogen . dioxide . (N02),

3. . particulate . matter . having . size . less . than . 10 . micron . (PMlO),

4. . particulate . matter . having . size . less . than . 2.5 . micron . (PM2.5),

5. . ozone,

6. . lead,

7. . carbon . monoxide . (CO),

8. . arsenic,

9. . nickel,

10. . benzene,

11. . ammonia, . and

12. . benzopyrene.

5.3. . WATER . POLLUTION

 . Addition . of . certain . substances . to . the . water . such . as . organic, . inorganic, . biological, . radiological, . heat, . which . degrades . the . quality . of . water . so . that . it . becomes . unfit . for . use'. . Water . pollution . is . not . only . confined . to . surface . water, . but . it . has . also . spread . to . ground . water, . sea . and . ocean.

sources

Types . of . sources

1. . Point . Sources

> . It . is . directly . attributable . to . one . influence. . Here . pollutant . travels . directly . from . source . to . water. . Point . sources . are . easy . to . regulate.

2. . Diffuse . or . non-point . source.

> . It . is . from . various . ill . defined . and . diffuse . sources. . They . vary . spatially . and . temporally . and . are . difficult . to . regulate.

> . The . main . sources . of . water . pollution . are . as . follows:

1) . Community . waste . water: . include . discharges . from . houses, . commercial . and . indμstrial . establishments . connected . to . public . sewerage . system. . The . sewage . contains . human . and . animal . excreta, . food . residues, . clean.i:llg . agents, . detergents . and . other . wastes.

2.     Industrial . Wastes: . The . industries . discharge . eseveral . inorganic . and . organic . pollutants, . which . may . prove . highly . toxic . to . the . living . beings.

Type . of . Industry	Inorganic . pollutants	Organic . Pollutant
Mining	Mine . Wastes: . Chlorides, . various . metals, . ferrous . sulphate, . sulphuric . acid, . hydrogen . sulphide, . ferric . hydroxide, . surface . wash . offs, . suspended . solids,  . chlorides . and . heavy . metals.
Iron . and . Steel	Suspended . solids, . iron . cyanide,  . thiocyanate, . sulphides, . oxides . of . copper, . chromium, . cadmium, . and . Mercury.	Oil . , . Phenol . and . neptha
Chemical . Plants	Various . acids . and . alkalies, . chlorides, . sulphates, . nitrates . of . metals, . phosphorus, . fluorine, . silica . and . suspended . particles.	Aromatic . compounds . solvents, . organic . acids, . nitro . compound . dyes, . etc.
Pharmaceutical		Proteins, . carbohydrates,  . organic . solvent . intermediate . products, . drugs . and . antibiotics
Soap . and . Detergent	Tertiary . ammonium . compounds . alkalies	Flats . and . fatty . acids, . glycerol, . polyphosphates, . sulphonated . hydrocarbons.
Food . processing		Highly . putrescible . organic . matter . and . pathogens
Paper . and . Pulp	Sulphides, . bleaching . liquors.	Cellulose . fibre . , . bark . , . woods . , . suger . and . organic . acid

3) . Agricultural . sources:

> . Fertilizers . contain . major . plant . nutrients . such . as . nitrogen, . phosphorus . and . potassium.

> . Excess . fertilizers . may . reaeh . the . ground . water . by . leaching . or . may . be . mixed . with . surface . water . of . rivers, . lakes . and . ponds . by . runoff . and . drainage.

 . > . Pesticides . include . insecticides, . fungicides, . herbicides, . nematicides, . rodenticides . and . soil . fumigants.

 . > . They . contain . a . wide . range . of . chemicals . such . as . chlorinated . hydrocarbons, . organophosphates, . metallic . salts, . carbonates, . thiocarbonates, . derivatives . of . acetic . acid . etc. . Many . of . the . pesticides . are . non-degradable . and . their . residues . have . long . life.

> . The . animal . excreta . such . as . dling, . wastes . from . poultry . farms, . piggeries . and . slaughter . houses . etc. . reach . the . water . though . run . off . and . surface . leaching . during . rainy . season.

 .

4) . Thermal . Pollution:

> . The . main . sources . are . the . thermal . and . nuclear . power . plants. . The . power . plants . use . water . as . coolant . and . release . hot . waters . to . the . original . source. . Sudden . rise . in . temperature . kills . fishes . and . other . aquatic . animals.

5) . Underground . water . pollution:

> . In . India . at . many . places, . the . ground . water . is . threatened . with . contamination . due . to . seepage . .. . from . industrial . and . municipal . wastes . and . effluents, . sewage . channels . and . agricultural . runoff.

6) . Marine . pollution:

> . Oceans . are . the . ultimate . sink . of . all . natural . and . manmade . pollutants. . Rivers . discharge . their . pollutants . into . the . sea. . The . sewerage . and . garbage . of . coastal . cities . are . also . dumped . into . the . sea. . The . other . sources . of . oceanic . pollution . are . navigational . discharge . of . oil, . grease, . detergents, . sewage, . garbage . and . radioactive . wastes, . off . . . shore . oil . mining, . oil . spills.

Oil . Spills

> . Oil . spills . is . one . of . the . most . dangerous . of . all . water . pollutants.

> . Oil . spills . from . tankers . at . sea . or . leaks . from . underground . storage . tanks . on . land . are . very . difficult . to . control . as . oil . tends . to . spread . very . fast, . affecting . a . large . area . in . a . very . short . time.

> . On . land . crude . is . transported . through . pipelines . or . tankers . which . can . get . damaged . and . spew . out . crude . oil . over . the . land, . thereby . contaminating . it.

~ . Since . crude . oil . is . lighter . than . water, . it . floats . on . the . surface . and . poses . the . threat . of . swift- . spreading . fire.

~ . Oil . spills . at . sea . decrease . the . oxygen . level . in . the . water . and . cause . harm . to . the . organisms.

~ . Oil . spills . are . also . a . source . of . air . and . groundwater . pollution.

 . Effects . of . Water . Pollution

1. . Effects . on . aquatic . ecosystem:

i) . Polluted . water . reduces . Dissolved . Oxygen . (DO) . content, . thereby, . eliminates . sensitive . organisms . like . plankton, . molluscs . and . fish . etc.

However . a . few . tolerant . species . like . Tubifex . (annelid . worm) . and . some . insect . larvae . may . survive . in . highly . polluted . water . with . low . DO . content. . Such . species . are . recognised . as . indicator . species . for . polluted . water.

ii) . Biocides, . polychlorinated . biphenyls . (PCBs) . and . heavy . metals . directly . eliminate . sensitive . aquatic . organisms.

iii) . Hot . waters . discharged . from . industries, . when . added . to . water . bodies, . lowers . its . DO . content.

DO,BOD,COD

» . Presence . of . organic . and . inorganic . wastes . in . water . decreases . the . dissolved. . Oxygen . (DO) . content . of . the . water. . Water . having . DO . content . below . 8.0 . mg . L-1 . may . be . considered . as . contaminated. . Water . having . DO . content . below. . 4.0 . mg . L-1 . is . considered . to . be . highly . polluted. . DO . content . of . water . is . important . for . the . survival . of . aquatic . organisms. . Amimber . of . factors . like . surface . turbulence, . photosynthetic . activity, . O₂ . consumption . by . organisms . and . decomposition . of . organic . matter . are . the . factors . which . determine . the . amount . of . DO· . present . in . water.

> . The . higher . amounts . of . waste . increases . the . rates . of . decomposition . and . O_{2 .} consumption, . thereby . decreases . the . DO . content . of . water. . The . demand . for . 02 . is . directly . related . to . increasing . input . of . organic . wastes . and . is . empressed . as . biological . oxygen . demand . (BOD) . of . water.

> . Water . pollution . by . organic . wastes . is . measured . in . terms . of . Biochemical . Oxygert . Demand . , . (BOD). . BOD . is . the . amount . of . dissolved . oxygen . needed . by . bacteria . in . decomposing . the . organic . wastes . present . in . water. . It . is . expressed . in . milligrams . of . oxygen . per . litre . of . water.

> . The . higher . value . of . BOD . indicates . low . DO . content . of . water. . Since . BOD . is . limited . to . biodegradable . materials . only. . Therefore, . it . is . not . a . reliable . method . of . measuring . pollution . load . in . water.

» . Chemical . oxygen . demand . (COD) . is . a . slightly . better . mode . used . to . measure . pollution . load . in . water. . It . is . the . measure . of . oxygen . equivalent . of . the . requirement . of . oxidaffon . of . total . organic . matter . (i.e. . biodegradable . and . non- . biodegradable) . present . in . water.

2. . Effects . on . human . health:

» . The . polluted . water . usually . contains . pathogens . like . virus, . bacteria, . parasitic . protozoa . and . worms, . therefore, . it . is . a . source . of . water . borne . diseases . like . jaundice, . cholera, . typhoid, . arnoebiasis . etc

> . Mercury . compounds . in . waste . water . are . converted . by . bacterial . action . into . extremely . toxic . methyl . mercury, . which . can . cause . numbness . of . limbs, . lips . and . tongue, . deafness, . blurring . of . vision . and . mental . derangement.

> . Water . contaminated . with . cadmium . can . cause . itai . itai . disease . also . called . ouch-ouch . disease . (apainful . disease . of . bones . and . joints) . and . cancer . of . lungs . and . liver.

>- . The . compounds . of . lead . cause . ana·emia, . headache, . loss . of . muscle . power . and . bluish . line . around . the . gum.

3. . Hazards . of . ground . water . pollution:

i. . Presence . of . excess . nitrate . in . drinking . water . is . dangerous . for . human . health . and . may . be . fatal . for . infants.

ii. . Excess . fluoride . in . drinking . water . causes . neuro-muscular . disorders, . gastro-intestinal . problems, . teeth . deformity, . hardening . of . bones . and . stiff . and . painful . joints . (skeletal . fluorosis).

> . High . concentration . of . fluoride . ions . is . present . in . drinking . water . in . 13 . states . of

India. . The . maximum . level . of . fluoride, . which . the . human . body . can . tolerate . is . 1.5 . parts . per . million . (mg/1 . of . water). . Long . term . ingestion . of . fluoride . ions . causes . fluorosis.

iii. . Over . exploitation . of . ground . water . may . lead . to . leaching . of . arsenic . from . soil . and . rock . sources . and . contaminate . ground . water. . Chronic . exposure . to . arsenic . causes . black . foot . disease. . It . also . causes. . diarrhoea,-peripheral . neuritis, . hyperkerotosis . and . also . lung . and . skin . cancer.

> . Arsenic . contamination . is . a . serious . problem . (in . tube . well . dug . areas) . m . the . Ganges . Delta, . west . bengal . causing . serious . arsenic . poisoning . to . large . numbers . of . people. .

4. . Biological . Magnification

5. . Eutrophicaiton

 . Control . Measures

1) . Riparian . buffers

2) . Treatment . of . sewage . water . and . the . industrial . effluents . should . be . done . before . releasing . it . water . bodies.

3) . Hot . water . should . be . cooled . before . release . from . the . power . plants

4) . Domestic . cleaning . in . tanks, . streams . and . . . rivers, . which . supply . drinking . water, . should . be . prohibited.

5) . Excessive . use . of . fertilizers . and . pesticides . should . be . avoided·.

6) . Organic . farming . and . efficient . use . of . animal . residues . as . fertilizers.

7) . Water . hyacinth . (an . aquatic . weed) . can . purify . water . by . taking . some . toxic . materials . and . a . number . of . heavy . metals . from . water.

8) . Oil . spills . in . water . can . be . cleaned . with . the . help . · . of . bregoli . - . a . by-product . of . paper . industry . resembling . saw . dust, . oil . zapper, . organisms.

SOIL . POLLUTION

> . Soil . is . a . thin . layer . of . organic . and . inorganic . materials . that . covers . the . Earth's . rocky . surface. . · . Soil . pollution . is . defined . as . the . 'addition . of . substances . to . the . soil, . which . adversely . affect . physical, . chemical . and . biological . properties . of . · . soil . and . reduces . its . productivity.'

> . It . is . build-up . of . persistent . toxic . compounds, . chemicals, . salts, . radioactive . materials, . or . disease . causing . agents . in . soil . which . have . adverse . effects· . on . plant . growth, . human . and . animal . health.

> . A . soil . pollutant . is . any . factor . which . deteriorates . the . quality, . texture . and . mineral . content . of . the· . soil . or . which . disturbs . the . biological . balance . of . the . organisms . in . the . soil.

 . Causes . of . Soil . Pollution .

> . Indiscriminate . use . of . fertilizers, . pesticides, . · . insecticides . and . herbicides

> . Dumping . of . large . quantities . of . solid . waste

> . Deforestation . and . soil . erosion.

> . Pollution . Due . to . Urbanisation

Source . of . Soil . Pollution .

i. . Industrial . Wastes:

> . Industrial . waste . includes . chemicals . such . as . · . mercury, . lead, . copper, . zinc, . cadmium, . cynides, . · . thiocynates, . chromates, . acids, . alkalies, . organic . substances . etc.

ii. . Pesticides:

Pesticides . are . chemicals . that . include . insecticides, . fungicides, . algicides, . rodenticides, . weedicides . sprayed . in . order . to . improve . productivity . of . agriculture, . forestry . and . horticulture.

iii. . Fertilizers . and . manures:

> . Chemical . fertilizers . are . added . to . the . soil . for . increasing . crop . yield. . Excessive . use . of . chemical . fertilizers . reduces . th . e . population . of . soil . borne . organism . and . the . crumb . structure . of . the . soil, . productivity . of . the . soil . and . increases . salt . content . of . the . soil.

iv. . Discarded . materials:

> . It . includes . concrete, . asphalt, . rungs, . leather, . cans, . pl~stics, . glass, . discarded . food, . paper . and . carcasses.

v. . Radioactive . wastes:

 . Radioactive . elements . from . mining . and . nuclear . power . plants, . find . their . way . into . water . and . then . into . the . soil.

vi. . Other . pollutants:

 . Many . air . pollutants . (acid . rain) . and . water . pollutants . ultimately . become . part . of . the . soil . and . the . soil . also . receives . some . toxic . chemicals . during . weathering . of . certain . rocks. . [in . box]

Types . of . Soil . Pollution

I. . Agricultural . Soil . Pollution

II. . Pollution . due . to . industrial . effluents . and . solid . wastes

III. . Pollution . due . to . urban . activities

 . Effects . of . soil . pollution . on

i) . Agriculture

• . Reduced . soil . fertility

• . Reduced . nitrogen . fixation

• . Increased . erosion

• . Loss . of . soil . and . nutrients

• . ·Reduced . crop . yield

• . Increased . salinity

• . Deposition . of . silt . in . tanks . and . reservoirs

ii) . Health

• . Dangerous . chemicals . entering . underground . water

• . Bio . magnification

• . Release . of . pollutant . gases

• . Release . of . radioactive . rayi.d1.Ming . healthproblems

iii) . Environment

• . Reduced . vegetation

• . Ecological . imbalance

• . Imbalance . in . soil . fauna . and . flora

iv) . Urban . areas

• . Oogging . of . drains

• . Inundation . of . areas

• . Foul . smell . and . release . of . gases

• . Waste . management . problems

»- . Control . measures

• . Reducing . chemical . fertilizer . and . pesticide . use

• . Use . of . bio . pesticides, . bio . fertilizers.

• . Organic . farming

• . Four . R's: . Refuse, . Reduce, . Reuse, . and . Recycle

• . Afforestation . and . Reforestation

• . Solid . waste . treatment

• . Reduction . of . waste . from . construction . areas

FOUR . R'S

1. . Refuse

»- . Instead . of . buying . new . containers . from . the . market, . use . the . ones . that . are . in . the . hquse. . Refuse . to . buy . new . items . though . you . may . think . they . are . prettier . thanthe . ones . you . already . have.

2. . Reuse

»- . Do . not . throw . away . the . soft . drink . cans. . Or . the . bottles; . cover . them . with . homcin(i\de . paper . or . paint . on . them . and . use . the:ni . as . pe,ncif . stands . or . small . vases.

3. . Recycle

»- . Use . shopping . bags . made . 0£ . cloth . or . jute, . which . can . be . used . over . ai\d: . over . again. . Segregate . your . wasteJo . make . sure . that . it . is . collected . and· . taken . for . recycling. . ·

4. . Reduce

»- . Reduce . th,e . generation_ . 0,f . w:jn~cessary . waste, . e.g. . carry . your . own . shopping . bag . when . you . go . to . the . market . and . put . all . four . purchases . directly . into . it. .

NOISE . POLLUTION

>-- . Noise . pollution . is . an . unpleasant . noise . created . by . people . or . machines . that . can . be . annoying, . distracting, . intrusive, . and/or . physically . painful.

>-- . Noise . pollution . comes . from . sources . such . as . "road . traffic, . jet . planes, . garbage . trucks, . construction . equipment, . manufacturing . processes, . leaf . bfowers, . and . boom . boxes."

>-- . Sound . is.measured . in . decibels . (dB). . An . increase . of . about . 10 . dB . is . approximately . double . the . increase . in . loudness.

>-- . A . person's . hearing . can . be . damaged . if . exposed . to . noise . levels . over . 75 . dB . over . a . prolonged . period . of . time. . The . World . Health . Organization . recommends . that . the . sound . level . indoors . should . be . less . than . 30 . dB.

Ambient . Noise . Level . Monitoring

> . Noise . Pollution . (Control . and . Regulation) . Rules, . 2000 . define . ambient . noise . levels . for . various . areas . as . follows:

Category . of . Area/ . Zone	Limits . in . dB(A) . Leq
	Day . Time .	Night . Time
	6a.m. . to . 10 . p.m	10 . pm . to . 6 . a.m
A. . Industrial . Area	75	70
B. . Commercial . Area	65	55
C. . Residential . Area	55	45
D. . Silence . Zone . 50 . 40	50	40

>The . Government . of . India . on . Mar . 2011 . launched . a . Real . time . Ambient . Noise . Monitoring . Network. . Under . this . network, . in . phase- . I, . five . Remote . Noise . Monitoring . Terminals . each . have . been . installed . in . different . noise . zones . in . seven . metros . (Delhi, . Hyderabad, . Kolkata, . Mumbai, . Bangalore, . Ol.ennai . and . Lucknow).

> . In. . Phase . Il . another . 35 . monitoring . stations . will . be . installed . in . the . same . seven . cities. . Phase . Ill . will . cover . installing . 90 . stations . in . 18 . other . cities.

> . Phase-III . cities . are . Kanpur, . Pune, . Surat, . Ahmedabad, . Nagpur, . Jaipur, . Indore, . Bhopal, . Ludhiana, . Guwahati, . Dehradun, . Thiruvananthpuram, . Bhubaneswar, . Patna, . Gandhinagar, . Ranchi, . Amritsar . and . Raipur.

> . Silence . Zone . is . an . area . comprising . not . less . than . 100 . metres . around . hospitals, . educational . institutions, . religious . places . or: . any . other . area . declared . as . such . by . a . competent . authority

Impacts . of . noise .

 . > . Annoyance: .

It . creates . annoyance . to . the . receptors . due . to . sound . level . fluctuations. . The . irregular . occurrences . causes . displeasure . to . hearing . and . causes . annoyance. .

> . Physiological . effects: .

The . physiological . features . like . breathing . amplitude, . blood . pressure,heart-beat . rate, . pulse . rate, . blood . cholesterol . are . affected. .

 . > . Loss . of . hearing:

 . Long . exposure . to . high . sound . levels_cause . loss . of . hearing. . This . is . mostly . unnoticed, . but . has . an . adversely . impact . on . hearmg . function.

> . Human . performance:

 . The . working . performance . of . workers/human . will . be . affected . as . it . distracts . the . concentration. .

> . Sleeplessness: .

It . affects . the . sleeping . there . by . inducing . concentration . and . presence . of . mind . during . their . activities .

> . Damage . to . material: .

The . buildings . and . materials . may . get . damaged . by . exposure . to . infrasonic . ,ultrasonic . waves . and . even . get . collapsed. .

Control

> . The . techniques . employed . for . noise . control . can . be . broadly . classified . as . •

1. . Control . at . source

> . Reducing . the . noise . levels . from . domestic . sectors

> . Maintenance . of . automobiles

> . Control . over . vibration

> . Prohibition . on . usage . of . loud . speakers

> . Selection . and . maintenance . of . machinery

2. . Control . in . the . transmission . path

> . Installation . of . barriers

> . Design . of . buildirig

> . Green . belt . development . (planting . of . trees)

3. . Using . protective . equipment.

> . Job . rotation

> . Reduced . Exposure . time

> . Hearing . protection

RADIO . ACTIVE . POLLUTION

 . Radioactive . Pollution

 . Radioactivity . is . a . phenomenon . of . spontaneous . emission . of . proton . (a-particles), . eiectrons . (a-particles) . and . gamma . rays . (short . wave . electromagnetic . waves) . due . to . disintegration . of . atomic . nuclei . of . some . elements. . These . cause . radioactive . pollution.

Types . of . Radiations

1. . Non-ionising . radiations . affect . only . those . components . which . absorb . them . and . have . low . penetrability.

2. . Ionising . radiations . have . high . penetration . power . and . cause . breakage . of . macro . molecules.

 . Types . of . radiation . particles

1. . Alpha . particles, . can . be . blocked . by . a . piece . of . paper . and . human . skin.

2. . Beta . particles . can . penetrate . through . skin, . while . can . be . blocked . by . some . pieces . of . glass . and . metal.

3. . Gamma . rays . can . penetrate . easily . to . human . skin . and . damage . cells . on . its . way . through, . reaching . far, . and . can . only . be . blocked . by . a . very . thick, . strong, . massive . piece . of . concrete.

 . Sources

1. . Natural

> . They . include . cosmic . rays . from . space . and . terrestrial . radiations . from . radio-nuclides . present . in . earth's . crust . such . as . radium-224, . uranium-238, . thorium-232, . potassium-40, . carbon-14, . etc.

2. . Man-made

> . Nuclear . power . plants

> . Nuclear . weapon

> . Transportation . of . nuclear . material

> . Disposal . of . nuclear . waste

> . Uranium . mining

> . Radiation . therapy

 . Effects

> . The . effects . of . radioactive . pollutants . depend . upon

i. . half-life

ii. . energy . releasing . capacity

iii. . rate . of . diffusion . and

iv. . rate . of . deposition . of . the . pollutant.

v. . Various . environmental . factors . such . as . wind, . temperature, . rainfall . also . influence . their . effects.

> . Radiations . are . of . two . types . with . regard . to . the . mode . of . their . action . on . cells.

1. . Non-ionising . radiations:

> . They . include . short-wave . radiations . such . as . ultraviolet . rays, . which . forms . a . part . of . solar . radiation.

> . They . have . low . penetrating . power . and . affect . the . cells . and . molecules . which . absorb . them.

> . They . damage . eyes . which . m.ay . be . caused . by . reflections . from . coastal . sand, . snow . (snow . blindness) . directly . looking . towards . sun . during . eclipse.

>They . injure . the . cells . of . skin . and . blood . capillaries . producing . blisters . and . reddening . called . sunburns.

2. . Ionising . radiations.

>They . include . X-rays, . cosmic . rays . and . atomic . radiations . '(radiations . emitted . by . radioactive. . elements).

> . Ionising . radiations . have . high . penetration . power . and . cause . ~reakage . of . macro . molecules.

>The . molecular . damage . may . produce . short . range . (immediate) . or . long . range . (delayed) . effects.

i. . ,Short . range . effects . include . bums, . impaired . metabolism, . dead . tissues . and . death . of . the . organisms.

ii. . Long . range . effects . are . mutations . increased . incidence . of . tumors . and . cancer, . shortening . of . life-span . and . developmental . changes.

iii. . The . mutated . gene . can . persist . in . living . organisms . and . may . affect . their . progeny.

> . The . actively . dividing . cells . such . as . Embryo, . foetus, . cells . of . skin, . intestinal . lining, . bone . marrow . and . gamete . forming . cells . are . more . sensitive . to . radiations.

>Some . species . of . animals . and . plants . preferentially . accumulate . specific . radioactive . materials. .

Control . Measures .

> . Prevention . is . the . best . control . measure . as . there . is . no . cure . available . for . radiation . damage. .

i. . All . safety . measures . should . be . strictly . enforced. . Leakage . of . radioactive . elements . should . be . totally . checked. .

ii. . Safe . disposal . of . radioactive . waste. .

iii. . Regular . monitoring . through . frequent . sampling . and . quantitative . analysis. .

iv. . Safety . measures . against . nuclear . accidents. .

v. . Nuclear . explosions . and . use . of . nuclear . weapons . should . be . completely . banned. .

vi. . Appropriate . steps . should . be . taken . to . protect . from . occupational . exposure.

E . - . WASTE

~ . The . discarded . and . end-of-life . electronic . products . ranging . from . computers, . equipment . used . in . Information . and . Communication . Technology . (ICT), . home . appliances, . audio . and . video . products . and . all . of . their . peripherals . are . popularly . known . as . Electronic . waste . (E-wast)

~ . E-waste . is . not . hazardous . if . it . is . stocked . in . safe . storage . or . recycled . by . scientific . methods . or . transported . from . one . place . to . the . other . in . parts. . or . in . totality . in . the . formal . sector. . Thee-waste . can, . however, . be . considered . hazardous . if . recycled . by . primitive . methods.

Source . and . its . Health . effect

PARTICULARS	SOURCE	HEALTH . EFFECTS
1.     Lead .	Used . in . glass . panels . and . gaskets . in . computer . monitors . Solder . in . printed . circuit . boards . and . other . Components	Lead . causes . damage . to . the . central . and . peripheral . nervous . systems, . blood . systems, . kidney . and . reproductive . system . in . humans. . It . also . effects . the . endocrine . system, . and . impedes . brain development . among . children. . Lead . tends to . accumulate . in . the . environment . and has . high . acute . and . chronic . effects . on plants, . animals . and . microorganisms.
2. . Cadmium	Occurs . in . S,MD . chip . resistors, . infra-red . detectors, . and . semiconductpr . chips . Some . older . cathode . ray . tubes . contain . cadmium	Toxic . cadmium . compounds . accumulate . in . the . human . body, . especially . the . kidneys.
3.     Mercury	It . is . estimated . that . 22 . % . of . the . yearly . world . consumption . of . mercury . is . used . in . electrical . and . electronic . equipment. Mercury . is . used . in . thermostats, . sensors, . relays, . switches, . medical . equipment, . lamps, . mobile . phones . and . in . batteries. Mercury, . used . in . flat . panel . displays, . will . likely . increase . as . their . use . replaces . cathode . ray . tubes	Mercury . can . cause . damage . to . organs including . the . brain . and . kidneys, . as . well . as . the . foetus. . The . developing . foetus . is . highly . vulnerable . to . mercury . exposure. . When . inorganic . mercury . spreads . out . in . thewater, it . is . transformed . to . methylated . mercury which . bio-accumulates . in . living . organisms . and . concentrates . through . the . food . chain, . partirularly . via . fish.
4.     Hexavalent Chromium/ Chromium . VI . 29	Chromium . VI . is . used . as corrosion . protector . of . untreated . and . galvanized steel . plates . and . as . a . decorative. . or . hardener . for . steel . housings . Plastics . (including . PVC): . Dioxin . is . released . when . PVC . is . burned. The . largest . volume . of . plastics . {26%) . used . in . electronics . has . been . PVC. . PVC . elements . are . found . in . cabling . and . computer housings. Many . computer . moldings . are . now . made . with . the . somewhat . more . benign . ABS . plastics	Chromium . VI . can . cause . damage . to . DNA and . is . extremely . toxic . in . the . environment.
5.     Brominated . flame . retardants . (BFRs):	BFRs . are . used . in . the . plastic . housings . of . electron . equipment . and . in . circuit . boards . to . prevent . flammability
6.     Barium	Barium . is . a . soft . silvery-white . metal . that . is . used . in . computers . in . the . front . panel . of . a . CRT, . to . protect . users . from . radiation	Studies . have . shown . that . short-term . exposure . to . barium . causes . brain . swelling, . muscle . weakness, . damage . to . the . heart, . liver, . and . spleen.
7.     Beryllium	Beryllium . is . commonly . fotind . on . motherboards . and . finger . clips. It . is . used . as . a . copper- . beryIlium . alloy . to . strengthen . connectors . and . tinyplugs . while . maintaining . electrical conductivity	Exposure . to . beryllium . can . cause . lung . cancer. . Beryllium . also . causes . skin . disease . that . is . characterised . by . Poor . wound . healing . and . wartlike . bumps. .
8.     Toners	Found . in . the . plastic . printer . cartridge . containing . black . and . color . toners. .	Inhalation . is . the . primary . exposure . pathway, and . acute . exposure . may . lead . to . respiratory tract . irritation. . Carbon . black . has . been classified . as . a . class . 2B . carcinogen, . possibly carcinogenic . to . humans. . Reports . indicate that . colour . toners . (cyan, . magenta . and yellow) . contain . heavy . metals.
9. . Phosphor . and . additives	Phosphor . is . an . inorganic . chemical . compound . that . is . applied . as . a . coat . on . the . interior . of . the . CRT . faceplate .	The . phosphor . coating . on . cathode . ray . tubes . contains . heavy . metals, . such . as . cadmium, . and . other . rare . earth . metals. . for . example, . zinc, . vanadium . as . additives. . These . metals ai-id . their . compounds . are . very . toxic. . This . is . a . serious . hazard . posed . for . those . who . dismantle . CRTs . by . hand.

 . E- . Waste . in . India

» . Survey . was . carried . out . by . the . Central . Pollution . Control . Board . {CPCB) . during . 2005 . estimated . that . 1.347 . lakh . MT . of . e-waste . was . generated . in . the . country . in . the . year . 2005, . which . is . expected . to . increase . to . about . 8.0 . lak:h . MT . by . 2012.

» . In . India, . among . top . ten . cities, . Mumbai . ranks . first . in . generating . e-waste . followed . by . Delhi, . Bangalore, . Chennai, . Kolkata, . Ahmadabad . .. . Hyderabad, . Pune, . Surat . and . Nagpur. .

SOLID . WASTE

> . Solid . wastes . are . the . discarded . (abandoned . or . considered . waste-like) . materials. . Solid . waste . means . any . garbage, . refuse, . sludge . from . a . wastewater . treatment . plant, . or . air . pollution . control . facility . and . other . discarded . materials . including . solid, . liquid, . semi-solid, . or . contained . gaseous . material, . resulting . from . industrial, . commercial, . mining . and . agricultural . operations, . and . from . community . activities. . But . it . does . not . include . solid . or . dissolved . materials . in . domestic . sewage, . or . solid . or . dissolved . materials . in . irrigation . return . flows . or . industrial . discharges.

Plastic . Waste

» . Plastics . are . considered . to . be . one . of . the . wonderful . inventions . of . 20th . Century. . They . are . widely . used . as . packing . and . carry . bags . because . of . cost . and . convenience. . But . plastics . - . are . now . considered . as . environmental . hazard . due . to . the . "Throw . away . culture".

Source . of . generation . of . waste . plastics

 . Household . ; . Health . and . medicare . ; . Hotel . and . catering . ; . Air/rail . travel

Effects

»- . The . land . gets . littered . by . plastic . bag . garbage . and . becomes . ugly . and . unhygienic. . Conventional . plastics . have . been . associated . with . reproductive . problems . in . both . humans . and . wildlife.

Dioxin . (highly . carcinogenic . and . toxic) . by-' . product . of . the . manufacturing . process . is . one . of . the. . chemicals . believed . to . be . passed . on . through . breast . milk . to . the . nursing . infant. .

Burning . of . plastics, . especially . PVC . releases . this . dioxin . and . also . furan . into . the . atmosphere. . Thus, . conventional . plastics, . right . from . their . manufacture . to . their . disposal . are . a . major . problem . to . the . environment. .

Plastic . bags' . can . also . contaminate . foodstuffs . due . to . leaching . of . toxic . dyes . and . transfer . of . pathogens.

 . Careless . disposal . of . plastic . bags . chokes . drains, . blocks . the . porosity . of . the . soil . and . causes . problems . for . groundwater . recharge.

» . Plastic . disturbs . the . soil . microbe . activity. . The . terrestrial . and . aquatic . animals . misunderstand . plastic . garbage . as . food . items, . swallow . them . and . die.

> . Plastic . bags . deteriorates . soil . fertility . as . it . forms . part . of . manure . and . remains . in . the . soil . for . years.

» . These . bags . finding . their . way . in . to . the . city . drainage . system . results . in . blockage . causing . inconvenience, . difficult . in . maintenance, . creates . unhygienic . environment . resulting . in . health . hazard . and . ~preading . of . water . borne . diseases.

> . Designing . eco-friendly, . biodegradable . plastics . are . the . need . of . the . hour.

Types . of . Solid . wastes

» . Solid . wastes . are . classified . depending . on . their . source:

a) . Municipal . waste,

b) . Hazardous . waste . and

c) . Biomedical . waste . or . hospital . waste.

a) . Municipal . solid . waste

> . Municipal . solid . waste . consists . of . household . ,, . waste, . construction . and . demolition . debris, . sanitation . residue, . and . waste . from . streets.

> . With . rising . urbanization . and . change . in . lifestyle . and . food . habits, . the . amount . of . municipal . solid . waste . has . been . increasing . rapidly . and . its . composition . changing.

> . 70% . of . the . Indian . cities . lack . adequate . capacity . to . transport . it . and . there . are . no . sanitary . landfills . to . dispose . of . the . waste. . The . existing . landfills . are . neither . well . equipped . and . are . not . lined . properly . to . protect . against . contamination . of . soil . and . groundwater.

> . Over . the . last . few . years, . the . consumer . market . has . grown . rapidly . leading . to . products . being . packed . in . cans, . aluminium . foils, . plastics, . and . other . such . nonbiodegradable . items . that . cause . incalculable . harm . to . the . environment.

b) . Hazardous . waste

> . Industrial . and . hospital . waste . is . considered . hazardous . as . they . contain . toxic . substances. . Hazardous . wastes . could . be . highly . toxic . to . humans, . animals, . and . plants . and . are . corrosive, . highly . inflammable, . or . explosive.

> . India . generates . around . 7 . million . tonnes . of . hazardous . wastes . every . year, . most . of . which . is . concentrated,in . four . states: . Andhra . Pradesh, . Bihar, . Uttar . Pradesh, . and . Tamil . Nadu.

> . Household . waste . that . can . be . categorized . as . hazardoμs_ . waste . include . old . batteries, . shoe . polish, . paint . tins, . old . medicines, . and . medicine . bottles.

> . In . the . industrial . sector, . the . major . generators . of . hazardops . waste . are . the . metal, . chemical, . paper, . pesticide, . dye, . refining, . and . rubber . goods . industries.

>- . Direct . exposure . to . chemicals . in . hazardous . waste . such . as . mercury . and . cyanide . can . be . fatal.

c. . Hospital . waste

> . Hospital . waste . is . generated . during . the . diagnosis, . treatment, . or . immunization . of . human . beings . or . animals . or . in . research . activities . or . in . the . production . or . testing . of . biologicals.

> . These . chemicals . include . formaldehyde . and . phenols, . whkh . are . used . as . disinfectants, . and . mercury, . whi~h . is . used . in . thermometers . or . equipment . that . measure . blood . pressure.

> . It . may . include . wastes . like . soiled . waste, . disposables, . anatomical . waste, . cultures, . discarded . medicines, . chemical . wastes, . disposable . syringes, . swabs, . bandages, . body . fluids, . human . excreta, . etc.

> . These . are . highly . infectious . and . can . be . a . serious . threat . to . human. . health . if . not . managed . in . a . scientific . and . discriminate . manner.

» . Surveys . carried . out . by . various . agencies . show . that . the . health . care . establishments . in . India . are . not . giving . dpe . attention . to . their . waste . management._ .

> . After . the . notification . of . the . Bio-medical . Waste . (Handling . and . Managerri.ent) . Rules, . 1998, . these . establishments . are . slowly . streamlining . the . process . of . waste . segregation, . collection, . treatment, . and . disposal.

Treatment . and . disposalof . solid . waste

i) . Open . dumps

> . Open . dumps . refer . to . uncovered . areas . that . are . used . to . dump . solid . waste . of . all . kinds. . The . waste . is . untreated, . uncovered, . and . not . segregated. . It . is . the . breeding . ground . for . flies, . rats, . and . other . insects . that . spread . disease. . The . rainwater . run- . off . from . these . dumps . contaminates . nearby . land . and . water . thereby . spreading . disease. . Treatment.

ii) . Landfills .

> . Landfills . are . generally . located . in . urban . areas. . It . is . a . pit . that . is . dug . in . the . ground. . The . garbage . is . dumped . and . the . pit . is . covered . with . soil . everyday . ; . thus . preventing . the . breeding . of . flies . and . rats. . Thus, . every . day, . garbage . is . dumped . and . sealed. . After . the . landfill . is . full, . Lhe . area . is . covered . with . a . thick . layer . of . mud . and . the . site . can . thereafter . be . developed . as . a . parking . lot . or . a . park. . ~

}> . Problems . - . All . types . of . waste . are . dumped . in . landfills . and . when . water . seeps . through . them . it . gets . contaminated . and . in . turn . pollutes . the . surrounding . area. . This . contamination . of . groundwater . and . soil . through . landfills . is . known . as . leaching. .

iii) . Sanitary . landfills .

> . Sanitary . landfill . is . more . hygienic . and . built . in . a . methodical . manner . to . solve . the . problem . -Qf . leaching. . These . are . lined . with . materials . that . are . impermeable . such . as . plastics . and . clay, . and . are . also . built . over . impermeable . soil. . Constructing . sarutary . landfills . is . very . costly.

iv) . Incineration . plants

> . The . process . of . burning . waste . in . large . furnaces . at . high . temperature . is . known . as . incineration. . In. . these . plants . the . recyclable . material . is . segregated . · . and . the . rest . of . the . material . is . burnt . and . ash . is . produced. . Burning . garbage . is . not . a . clean . process . as . it . produces . tonnes . of . toxic . ash . and . pollutes . the . air . and . water. . A . large . amount . of . the . waste . that . is . burnt . here . can . be . recovered . and . recycled. . In . fact, . at . present, . incineration . is . kept . as . the . last . resort . and . is . used . mainly . for . treating . the . infectious . waste.

v) . Pyrolysis

> . It . is . a . process . of . combustion . in . absence . of . oxygen . or . the . material . burnt . under . controlled . atmosphere . of . oxygen. . It . is . an . alternative . to . incineration. . The . gas . and . liquid . thus . obtained . can . be . used . as . fuels. . Pyrolysis . of . carbonaceous . · . wastes . like . firewood, . coconut, . palm . waste, . com . combs, . cashew . shell, . rice . husk . paddy . straw . and . saw . dust, . yields . charcoal . along . with . products . like . tar, . methyl . alcohol, . acetic . acid, . acetone . and . a . fuel . gas.

vi) . Composting

~ . Composting . is . a . biological . process . in . which . micro-organisms, . mainly . fungi . and . bacteria, . decompose . degradable . organic . waste . into . humus . like . substance . in . the . presence . of . oxygen.

 . This . finished . product, . which . looks . like . soil, . is . high . in . carbon . and . nitrogen . and . is . an . excellent . medium . for . growing . plants.

> . It . incre.ases . the . soil's . ability . to . hold . water . and . makes . the . soil . easier . to . cultivate. . It . helps . the . soil . retain . more . plant . nutrients.

> . It . recycles . the . nutrients . and . returns . them . back . to . soil . as . nutrients.

> . Apart . from . being . clean, . cheap, . and . safe, . composting . can . significantly . reduce . the . amount . of . disposable . garbage.

vii) . Vermiculture

> . It . is . also . known . as . earthworm . farming. . In . this . method, . Earth . worms . are . added . to . the . compost. . These . worms . break . the . waste . and . the . added . excreta . of . the . worms . makes . the . compost . very . rich . in . nutrients.

BIOREMEDIATION

> . Bioremediation . is . the . use . of . microorganisms . (bacteria . and . fungi) . to . degrade . the . environmental . contaminants . into . less . toXic . forms.

> . The . microorganisms . may . be . indigenous . to . a . contaminated . area . or . they . may . be . isolated . from . elsewhere . and . brought . to . the . contaminated . site.

 . Bioremediation . Strategies

(a) . In . situ . bioremediation . techniques

> . It . involves . treatment . of . the . contaminated . material . at . the . site.

• . Bioventing . - . supply . of . air . and . nutrients . through . wells . to . contaminated . soil . to . stimulate . the . growth . of . indigenous . bacteria. . It . is . used . for . simple . hydrocarbons . · . and . can . be . used . where . the . contamination . is . deep . under . the . surface.

• . Biosparging . - . Injection . of . air . under . pressure . below . the . water . table . to . increase . groundwater . oxygen . concentrations . and . enhance . the . rate . of . biological . degradation . of . contaminants . by . naturally . occurring . bacteria . ·

• . Bioaugmentation . - . Microorganisms . are . imported . to . a . contaminated . site . to . enhance . degradation . process . ..

(b) . Ex . siht . biorentedi(lti,on . teC,hniques

> . Ex . situ . -involves . the . removal . of . the . contaminated . material . to . be . treated . else . where.

• . Landfarming .

• . Biopiles . - .

• . Bioreactors . - .

• . Composting . – .