METHODOLOGY
OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
CONTENTS
Research : Meaning, characteristics and types;
Steps of research;
Methods of research;
Research Ethics;
Paper, article, workshop, seminar, conference and
symposium;
Thesis writing: its characteristics and format.
Meaning ,Nature , Purpose and Scope of educational research
Scientific Inquiry and Theory Development—some emerging trend in research
Fundamental – Applied
and Action research
Formulation of research problems
Criteria and sources for identifying the problems
Delineating
and Operationalizing Variables
Developing assumption and hypothesis in various types
of research
Collection of Data
Concept of population and sample
Various methods of sampling
Characteristics of a good research tool
Types of research tools and technique and their uses
Questionnaire – Interview – Observations
Tests and Scales , projective and sociometric techniques
Major
Approaches to research
Descriptive
Research
Ex-post facto
Research
Laboratory
Research
Field Research
Field study and experiment
Historical
Research
Ethnographic
Research
Phenomenon
Research
Scientific
Research
Experimental
Research
Analysis
of Data –-
Descriptive
and Inferential Statistics , The Null hypothesis ,
Test of Significance , Types of
Error, One –tailed, Two-tailed tests
The t- test
The F-test (
one-way and ANOVA)
Non-parametric
tests ( Chi-squire test)
Biserial , point Biserial,
tetrachoric and phi- coefficient of
correlation
Partial
and multiple correlation
METHODOLOGY OF
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
MEANING :
Research can be
defined as the systematic inquiry based of the application of scientific method
and systematic search for relevant information on a specific topic or problem.
According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and
redefining problems, formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting,
organising and evaluating data; making deductions and reaching conclusions; and
at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit the
formulating hypothesis.
D. Slesinger and M.
Stephenson in the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences define research as “the
manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalising to
extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in
construction of theory or in the practice of an art.”
NATURE :
By going through the
definition given below we can easily recognised nature of research.
Kerlinger
(1973) defines research as a systematic,
controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions
about the presumed relations among natural phenomena.
According
to Sevilla (1990), research means
searching a theory or solving a problem.
Aquino
(1971) has a more detailed definition of research. He says that research is, simply, the systematic search
for pertinent information on a specific topic or problem.
Barredo
and Ramirez define research as the
scientific method of exploring issues from different areas of knowledge and of
finding solutions to those issues by the application of your intelligence,
experiences and observations.
The
term research according to Fraenkel and Wallen (1993), can
mean any sort of careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some
field of knowledge, undertaken to discoverer establish facts and principles.
CHARACTERISTIC OF
RESEARCH
Best and
Kahn (1995) gave a summary of the characteristics of research so as to clarify
its meaning. These are
(i) Research
emphasises the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will
be helpful in predicting future occurrences;
(ii)Research
is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence;
(iii)Research
demands accurate observation and description;
(iv)Research
involves gathering new data from primary or first-hand success or using
existing data for a new purpose;
(v)Research
is often characterized by carefully designed procedures that apply rigorous
analysis;
(vi)Research
requires expertise;
(vii)Research
strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate
the procedures employed, the data collected and the conclusions reached;
(viii)Research
involves the quest for answers to unresolved problems;
(ix)Research
is characterized by patient and unhurried activity;
(x)Research
is carefully reported and recorded;
(xi)Research
requires courage.
Scope of educational
research
The scope of a subject can usually be discussed under two
heads:
1. The branches,
topics and the subject matter it deals with
2. The limits of its
operations and applications
The fields of educational research can be classified in
terms of following content areas.
1. Educational Psychology
2.Philosophy of Education
3.Sociology of Education
4.Economics of Education
5. Educational Administration
6.Comparative Education
7.Curriculum construction and Textbooks
8.Educational Measurement and Test development
9.Teacher education and teaching behavior
10.
Guidance and counselling
11.Educational Technology
1. Educational Psychology
Research in Educational Psychology plays great role for a teacher. The usefulness of
various theories of learning for designing conditions that produce effective
learning in school has been the central theme of researches in the recent
years. Conditions conducive to effective learning, factors helpful in promoting
memory and concept formation need attention by the researchers.
Promising fields of research in Educational Psychology
include. Cognitive, non-cognitive factors such as intelligence, attitudes,
interest, aptitudes, creativity,
motivation, personality traits, needs and adjustment of pupils various
influences of home, neighbourhood, peer relationships and other social
relationships that affect child development, growth and learning are worth
investigating. The fundamental process of perception, learning and motivation
and their applications, the exceptional children, the adolescent problems,
achievement etc. should be studied.
2. Philosophy of Education
Education is the dynamic side of philosophy. Unless based
on the sound footing of a systematic philosophy, it’s theory and practice can
never attain perfection. Promising field of research in philosophy of education
include the following areas.
The aims of education, the motivation of learning the
measurements it’s results, the construction of curriculum. A study of the
utterances of Vyasa and Valmiki, Budha Shankaracharya, Swami Vivekananda, Sri.
Aurobindo, Tagore and Mahatma Gandhi, a
philosophical analysis of the problems of indiscipline,
unrest, strikes, disobedience of authority etc.
P.S. Naidu to has listed following area of philosophy of
education in which research may be undertaken.
1. Need for
philosophy of Education
2. Special
features of Indian Philosophy
3. Indian
Philosophy and Indian Education
4. Indian
Philosophical thoughts
5. The
teacher, the learner, Teacher – learner interrelation and interaction
6. Some
Ancient Educational institutions
7. The abiding
elements in Indian philosophy of education
8.
Reorganization of Education to make it Indian on the basis of the
exposition attempted so far.
3. Sociology of Education
The important problems of research related to sociology of
education include the study of population explosion and changes, demographic
trends, the impact of political and social pressures on an educational system,
educational aims, curriculum contents, methods and techniques in
teaching-learning process, conductive to socio economic and politico cultural
situations prevailing in the country from time to time.
The role and function of the school may be determined in
the light of the needs of the specific community background. In the problem of
delinquency, the study of social factors and cultural background of the
community important. Problems relating to tribal cultures, rural community,
community development, industrialization, urbanization crime and family should
be investigated. The problems like the teacher’s role as an agent of social
change and modernization, teacher’s admissions and academic achievement in
schools need to be investigated on the priority basis.
4. Economic and
Education
Studies in Economics and Education include attitude studies
and achievement test. Very few studies have been made in educational finance.
Some researchers have recently studied the five – year plan allocations and
their utilization. A recent study relates to unit institutional costs in Higher
Education.
5. Educational
Administration
The work in this area is more or less of survey type. It
would be worthwhile to undertake research in the areas of Staff personnel
administration, educational legislation, educational planning, school plant
planning, school organization, business administration, evaluation of
institutions, administrative theory and supervision. Researches may study the
place and scope of collective bargaining in education, the impact of compulsory
education laws, legal status of voluntary organizations in the administration
and control of education.
6. Comparative Education
This includes analyzing the educational organization and
administrative machinery of two or more countries. Problems like education and
national development in terms of economic growth, educational control and
reorganization of curriculum, the role of universities, social education, and
so on may be subjects of purposeful research. The innovative ideas of work
experiences in the country and granting autonomous status to some colleges etc
need a comparative probe in to them. Odd has suggested that interstate study in
grant in aid system and administrative patterns would be fruitful. It will be
worthwhile to make a comparative study
of the procedures, problems of textbook production, the quality of textbooks
production and teacher’s reaction to them.
7. Curriculum construction and textbooks
A school curriculum will be effective it is based on adequate knowledge of how children grow and learn and of the
needs of the modern society. The latter is a matter of public relations and the
former of research. The research in curriculum needs to be focused on the
following issues.
1. Testing experimentally all principles of curriculum
construction
2. Curriculum in
education that will produce better results in morals
3. To investigate into the sources of curriculum content
4. What is the bearing of psychology on the curriculum
5. What are the
future needs of pupils as far as curriculum is concerned?
6. What should be
the methods in curriculum making etc.
8. Educational
measurement and test development
This includes the following areas like construction and
standardization of achievement tests. Problems relating to pupil , placement,
diagnosis, remedial programmes, norms,
psychological tests, observational techniques, rating scales, groups tests of
intelligence and aptitude, personality tests etc.
9. Teacher
education and teaching behaviour.
These studies relate the areas historical development of
teacher– education, curriculum and training programmes co-curriculum and
practical work, assessment, evaluation, and prediction of teaching. Some
studies have been concerned with attitudes of teachers and student teachers
towards various parts of the pre-service and in service programmes. Personal,
economic and socio economic conditions of teachers have also been studied.
10. Guidance and
counselling
The areas are, Vocational adjustment of Indian youth,
vocational choice and Adjustment, long term manpower needs, future needs, the
study of aptitudes, socio-economic status, interest patterns and other
personality dimension, tests of intelligence, special aptitudes like art,
science and music, special skills and scholastic aptitudes etc.
11. Educational
Technology
The software approach, hardware approach and systems
approached and their impact on the learning of students, programmed
instruction, use of science and technology to improve the teaching learning
process, communication and media, audio visual aids, teaching machines,
projectors and computers are some areas which can be included in research
studies. The relative benefits of face to face instruction and televised
instruction in teaching of different subjects may be included in the field of
research studies.
We can also do research works by dividing the educational
field under some main headings ie, pre-primary, primary, secondary Higher
education, Agricultural and Technical education, formal, non formal education,
adult education, correspondence and distance education etc.
Thus the area of educational research is very wide and not ending. As the
education is dynamic and changing in nature it’s related problems are also
increasing and changing in nature. We can do study in every field that related
to education.
Priority Areas in
Research
1. Education of Backward persons.
2. Free and compulsory education
3. Drop out rate and stagnation
4. Equal opportunities.
5. Vocationalisation
6. Population Education and gender studies
7. Education and handicapped
8. Universalisation
9. Education of Talented persons
10. Education for economic growth
11. Coordination of all agencies in Education
12. Organisation of
school meals
13. Follow up
studies of old students
14. Homework and study habits
15. Student’s
welfare schemes. Etc
NEED AND
PURPOSE OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
1. It Develops new understanding related
to the learning, teaching etc:The educators are benefited through various
research as it helps them in having a better understanding of the subject.
Along with this, it develops greater understanding related to the teaching,
learning and other educational administration.
2.
Education is directly linked to all the field of Human activity.
It is through the intensive process of scientific enquiry about the impact of
various aspect of education , scientific theories can be established.
3.
Research will give suggestion of what to do and what not to do in
educational programme according to situation.
4.
To solve the immediate local problem in education.
5.
To answer the questions related to education through reflective
thinking.
6.
To discover new application of principles and laws in the field
of education.
STEPS IN
EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
FOLLOWING STEPS ARE FOLLOWED IN ALL EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
1.
Selecting the field , topic, or subject for research
2.
Surveying the field to identify the problem
3.
Developing a bibliography after surveying the literature
4.
Isolating the problems and its various dimensions
5.
Defining the problems and its various dimensions
6.
Outlining the elements in the problems
7. Classifying
the elements in the problem on the basis of their relation to the data to be
collected
8.
Determining the data required on the basis of element in the
problem
9.
Ascertaining the availability of data required
10. Determining
whether the problem can be solved with help of the data collected
11.
Collecting the data relevant to the problem
12.
Systematizing and arranging the data
13.
Analysing and interpreting data
14.
Arranging the interpreted data for presentation
15.
Classifying the data into fact and opinion
16.
Deriving inference and testing hypothesis
17.
Giving suggestion to the concern people
18.
Selecting and using reference and footnotes
19.
Giving assumption and limitation of the study
20.
Developing the form and style of the research expansion
The above steps can be condensed into the following six
steps
1. Identifying and Defining the problem ; This is the first step and here research
problem is selected by surveying the literature or by experience , when the
researcher come across the problem .The problem is stated in definite and clear
terms after defining various concept. The problem is stated in such manner that it become clear what data or evidence
will be required to solve this problem.
2. Formulation of
Hypothesis : Hypothesis
formulation is second step. Hypothesis is nothing but a tentative solution to
the problem.
3. Clarification of research
procedure : Procedure and method of research are clarified in this
step .It refers to the general
strategies to be followed in collecting and analysing the data. The
research method depends on the nature of
problem under study and type of data required.
4. Collection of Data : The method or
technique to be used for collecting data is clarified in this step.At first
sample is chosen and then research tools
such as questionnaire . test , interview etc are used on the sample.
5. Analysis and interpretation of data : Here
data are first arranged in systematic form, them they are analyses and
interpreted in context of hypothesis.Appropriate quantitative as well as
qualitative technique are used for processing the data.This step helps in
testing the hypothesis.
6. Drawing Conclusion and Development of
theory and principles : This is the
final step where conclusion are drawn on the basis of results and laws or
principles are developed for wide use of the result.
CRITERIA OF
GOOD RESEARCH
1. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined
and should contribute human knowledge and welfare.
2. The research
procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the
continuity of what has already been attained.
3. The procedural design of the research should be
carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as possible and free
from bias.
4. The researcher
should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and estimate
their effects upon the findings.
5. The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to
reveal its significance and the methods of analysis used should be appropriate.
The validity and reliability of the data should be checked carefully.
6. Conclusions
should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited
to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
7. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the
researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research and is a person of
integrity.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
GENERAL CLASSIFICATION
(1)
Historical Research
(2)
Descriptive Research
(3)
Fundamental/Pure/Basic
Research
(4)
Applied Research
(5)
Action Research
(6)
Exploratory Research
(7)
Causal Research
(8)
Experimental Research
(9) Correlation Research
(10)Ethnographic
Research
(11)Evaluation Research
(12) Case study
(13)
Diagnostic study
(14) Research and Development
CLASSIFICATION ON
THE BASIS OF HOW RESEARCH PROBLEM IS
DEFINED
Closed research question Open
research question
Quantitative Research Qualitative Research
1.Descriptive research 1.Ethnographic research
2.Correlationresearch 2.Phenomenology research
3.Causal
Comparable research 3.Textual Analysis
4.Experimental
research 4.Case study
5 .Applied research
CLASSIFICATION ON
THE BASIS OF OBJECTIVE OR PURPOSE OF STUDY
1.
Basic research
3.
Evaluative research
2.
Applied research
4.
Action research
CLASSIFICATION ON
THE BASIS OF METHOD
1.
Historical research 2. Descriptive research
3.
Experimental research
CLASSIFICATION ON
THE BASIS OF DESIGN OF STUDY
1.
Exploratory research
2.
Conclusive
Comparative classification
Descriptive
Research
|
Analytical Research
|
Description about the condition as it exists
|
Has to use facts that are readily available
|
Also known as
Ex post facto research
|
To make a
critical evaluation Facts are analyzed
|
Researcher has no control over the variables
|
|
Used to discover causes when variables cannot be controlled
|
|
Fact finding inquiries and field surveys
|
|
Method of research: Survey
|
|
Applied
Research
|
Fundamental Research
|
Find solution for immediate
problem
|
Generalizations and
formulation of a theory
|
Research is aimed at a
solution
|
Concerns natural phenomenon or
math
|
Solution to some pressing
practical problem
|
Finding information that has a
broad base of application
|
Result become the property of
the
sponsor
|
Adds to the existing body of
scientific knowledge
|
Quantitative
Research
|
Qualitative Research
|
Phenomena that can be quantified
|
Used in behavioural sciences
|
Value free study
|
Used when studying human behavior
|
Base on numerical evidence
|
Projective techniques used
|
Objective study
|
Phenomena involves quality or kind
|
Conceptual Research
|
Empirical Research
|
Based on some ideas on theory
|
Relies on experience or observation
|
Used by philosophers and thinkers
|
Data-based research
|
|
Experimental research
|
Sr. No.
|
Pure
Research
|
Applied
Research
|
1.
|
Studies a problem usually from the focus of one
discipline.
|
Several disciplines collaborate for solving the problem.
|
2.
|
Aims to illuminate the theory by enriching the
basic of a discipline.
|
Aims to solve a problem by enriching the field of application of a
discipline.
|
3.
|
Seeks generalizations
|
Often studies individual cases without the
objective to generalize
|
4.
|
Studies why things happen
|
Studies how things can be changed
|
5.
|
Reports is in technical language
|
Report is
in common language
|
Longitudinal research: Research carried over several
time periods
Field Setting
Research or Laboratory Research: Depending on the environment
Clinical or Diagnostic Research: Goes deep into the causes of
events or things
Exploratory
or Formalized: Development of hypothesis/ Testing hypothesis
Types of Research Methods
M.Varma has presented broad meaning of the term method.
According to him content is important for determining method. The common type
of matter may be three types; hence all the methods can be classified under
three heads.
1. Theoretical
problem- Survey method ,
Experimental method.
2. Factual
problem – Historical method , Case study
method and Genetic method.
3. Application
problem – Action Research
George J. Mouly has classified research method into three
basic types: Survey, Historical and Experimental methods. And their further
classification is given below.
Classification of
research method On the basis of research approse
1. Longitudinal approach : It is an observational research
method in which data is gathered for the same subjects repeatedly over a
period of time. Longitudinal research
projects can extend over years or even decades
It employs following three method of research
(i) Historical
Method (ii) Genetic
Method (iii) Case study Method
2.
Cross-Sectional approach : This method is used to gather information.
It employs following three method of research
(i) Survey Method (ii)
Experimental Method (iii) Ex-post facto Method
Descriptive Survey
Method : It describe and interpret what exist at present. ? And deals with
what is ?
Here the research is concerned with condition or
relationship that exist, practices that prevail and trends that are developing.
Purpose of
Descriptive Research :
1.
To identify present condition and point out towards
present needs
2.
Fact finding research
3.
To study immediate status of a phenomenon
4.
To examine the relationships of traits and
characteristics (trend and patterns)
The normative or descriptive survey is more realistic than
experimental research. These researches are oriented towards the description of
the present status of a given phenomenon
Types of Normative
or Descriptive Research –
(a) Survey Testing,
(b) Questionnaire Survey,
(c) School survey
(d) Documentary
Studies
(a) Survey Testing : Testing
researchers are concerned with academic and psychological tests are
administered for data collection. This type of research includes following
types of problems.
(i) Selection of test
(ii) Construction of test
(iii) Applicability of test Characteristics of Survey
Testing Research-
The following are
major characteristics:
1. These researches
are relatively more scientific and accurate.
2. It provides more accurate data.
3. The data are subjected to parametric treatment/analysis.
4. The sample is usually of large size the error of
measurement and sampling error is put to the minimum.
5. The findings are
authentic and accurate.
6. The conclusions
are realistic and applicable.
7. It provides the
deep insight to the psychometric method of test construction.
Achievement Testing
: Survey testing of educational attainment has become a large and well
established part of school survey. Achievements test of objective types are
constructed for this purpose.
The Personality
Testing : Though difficult to define, analyze and measure, they still have
given rise to some instruments for survey testing in the field of personality,
character and adjustment which embrace a wide variety of techniques.
Questionnaires, interviews observations, checklists and rating scale as also
some carefully pre-arrangement social situations are frequently employed in
addition to written tests.
School Appraisal
: It is an attempt to measure not the objective characteristics of a school,
but the effect of those characteristics on human beings. Appraisal of different
aspects of a school is an essential element in school survey. It is concerned
with both the objective aspects of an educational institution including its
administrative provisions and practices and the educational attainments of its
pupils. In other words, it takes account of both static and functional data or
conditions and outcomes.
(b) Questionnaire Survey : This type of descriptive or normative
research uses a questionnaire as research tool for data collection. It is most
frequently used in research. Researches of this type are employed for school
and educational survey and also for educational administration.
Advantages:- The followings are the main
advantages of questionnaire survey research:
1. It permit wide
coverage at minimum expenses of both money and effort. It affords wider
geographical coverage. It makes for greater validity in the result through
promoting the selection of a large and more representative sample.
2. The validity of
questionnaire data also depends in a crucial way on the validity and
willingness of the respondents to provide the information requested.
Disadvantages: - The major disadvantage of
the questionnaire is the possibility of the misinterpretation of the questions.
Misinterpretations are due to the respondent’s willingness or impersonality.
Mailed questionnaires are usually impersonal. The reliability of the
questionnaire is often ignored.
(c) The School Surveys : A school survey generally is a comprehensive
study of existing educational conditions undertaken to determine the overall
effectiveness of the school programme with a view towards improvement where
indicated. In a sense it is a form of accounting or inventory. It gathers
information about various aspects of the school programme and evaluates than in
the light of objectives of the school. It can be restricted to one specific
element or one specific department but in general it is most useful when it is
designed to accomplish the school programme.
Comprehensive type
of school survey covers the following aspects:
1. Aims, outcomes, pupil achievement, curriculum method and
instructional aids.
2. Administrative
problems and procedures.
3. Financial policies and procedures.
4. Optional and maintenance of the physical plant and
related factors.
5. Pupil
transposition.
6. Staff and personals.
(a) Behaviour Studies - Centred round
measuring such traits and self reliance, initiative, spontaneity, judgment,
cooperation, adaptability, etc., which form no mean goals of education.
(b) Attitude Studies - Centred round the
attitudes of the pupils, parents or teachers towards course of study,
activities in or out of school, professions and problems, they may encounter.
(c) Curriculum
Studies – As part of school survey, the object may be merely to analyse the
existing curriculum in a school system and perhaps to compare it with that
exiting elsewhere. But if it is carried on as an independent study, it may take
a more complicated shape. It may include or analyse the principles on which the curriculum is based,
the needs it’s fulfil, the form it has taken and the shortcomings it suffers
from. The relation to the community, it service, may also be determined.
(d) Building Surveys
–The questionnaire, checklist, score cards, observation are the usual tools for
collecting data about buildings, their right, and location, the accommodation
they provide, the arrangement they have for various classes, subjects
activities or staffs, the conditions they are in as regards the construction
and cleanliness and the improvement or the whole procedure is however
purposive, not mechanical application of steps and techniques.
(f) Financial Study –To
ascertain the sources of finance, the items of expenditure, the deficit or indebtedness,
expenditure per pupil, teacher’s salaries, etc, are the main aspects for the
financial study of a school. For this purpose the questionnaires are generally
used. The financial study of a school helps, to a great extent, in the status
study expansions they stand in need of. These studies too may be independent
and complete in themselves or comparative of part of wider school surveys.
(d) Documentary Studies –It is
undertaken to identify and count certain characteristics found in documents
under consideration. They deal with a systematic examination of currents
records, documents etc and may merely gather and classify data from such
documents or may also evaluate the content according to some established
criteria.
The documentary studies may serve the following purpose:
· They may describe prevailing practices or
conditions.
· They may discover the relative importance or
interest in certain topics or problem.
· They may discover levels of
difficulty of presentation in textbooks or other publications.
· They may evaluate element of
bias or propaganda in text-book presentation.
· They may analyze types of
errors in standard’s work.
There sources of data for documentary studies may be:
· Official reports and records
· Printed forms textbooks,
reference books
· Letters, autobiographies, diaries
· Compositions, themes or other
prepared works
· Books, magazines, newspapers
· Colleges bulletins, catalogues,
syllabi
· Pictures and cartoons etc.
Types of Documentary studies – The following are the main types of
documentary studies:
1. Text book analysis,
2. Analysis of longer bodies of
literature,
3. Curriculum analysis,
4. Job analysis,
5. Analysis of assembled specimens:
(a) Vocabulary analysis
(b) Error studies
(c) Analysis of characteristics of school records and
reports
CASE STUDY
Meaning of Case
Study
A case study is a comprehensive study of a social unit of
society, which may be a person, family group, institution, community or event.
It aim is to find out the influencing
factors of a social unit and the relationship between these factors and a
social unit. The case study is not itself a research method, but researchers
select methods of data collection and analysis that will generate material
suitable for case studies such as qualitative techniques (semi-structured
interviews, participant observation, diaries), personal notes (e.g. letters,
photographs, notes) or official document (e.g. case notes, clinical notes,
appraisal reports). The data collected can be analysed using different theories
(e.g. grounded theory, interpretative phenomenological analysis, text
interpretation (e.g. thematic coding) etc.
